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+ <span id="allos"></span><h1>Generic Operating System Services</h1> <p>The modules described in this chapter provide interfaces to operating system features that are available on (almost) all operating systems, such as files and a clock. The interfaces are generally modeled after the Unix or C interfaces, but they are available on most other systems as well. Here’s an overview:</p>  <ul> <li class="toctree-l1">
+<a class="reference internal" href="os"><code>os</code> — Miscellaneous operating system interfaces</a><ul> <li class="toctree-l2"><a class="reference internal" href="os#file-names-command-line-arguments-and-environment-variables">File Names, Command Line Arguments, and Environment Variables</a></li> <li class="toctree-l2"><a class="reference internal" href="os#python-utf-8-mode">Python UTF-8 Mode</a></li> <li class="toctree-l2"><a class="reference internal" href="os#process-parameters">Process Parameters</a></li> <li class="toctree-l2"><a class="reference internal" href="os#file-object-creation">File Object Creation</a></li> <li class="toctree-l2">
+<a class="reference internal" href="os#file-descriptor-operations">File Descriptor Operations</a><ul> <li class="toctree-l3"><a class="reference internal" href="os#querying-the-size-of-a-terminal">Querying the size of a terminal</a></li> <li class="toctree-l3"><a class="reference internal" href="os#inheritance-of-file-descriptors">Inheritance of File Descriptors</a></li> </ul> </li> <li class="toctree-l2">
+<a class="reference internal" href="os#files-and-directories">Files and Directories</a><ul> <li class="toctree-l3"><a class="reference internal" href="os#linux-extended-attributes">Linux extended attributes</a></li> </ul> </li> <li class="toctree-l2"><a class="reference internal" href="os#process-management">Process Management</a></li> <li class="toctree-l2"><a class="reference internal" href="os#interface-to-the-scheduler">Interface to the scheduler</a></li> <li class="toctree-l2"><a class="reference internal" href="os#miscellaneous-system-information">Miscellaneous System Information</a></li> <li class="toctree-l2"><a class="reference internal" href="os#random-numbers">Random numbers</a></li> </ul> </li> <li class="toctree-l1">
+<a class="reference internal" href="io"><code>io</code> — Core tools for working with streams</a><ul> <li class="toctree-l2">
+<a class="reference internal" href="io#overview">Overview</a><ul> <li class="toctree-l3"><a class="reference internal" href="io#text-i-o">Text I/O</a></li> <li class="toctree-l3"><a class="reference internal" href="io#binary-i-o">Binary I/O</a></li> <li class="toctree-l3"><a class="reference internal" href="io#raw-i-o">Raw I/O</a></li> </ul> </li> <li class="toctree-l2">
+<a class="reference internal" href="io#text-encoding">Text Encoding</a><ul> <li class="toctree-l3"><a class="reference internal" href="io#opt-in-encodingwarning">Opt-in EncodingWarning</a></li> </ul> </li> <li class="toctree-l2"><a class="reference internal" href="io#high-level-module-interface">High-level Module Interface</a></li> <li class="toctree-l2">
+<a class="reference internal" href="io#class-hierarchy">Class hierarchy</a><ul> <li class="toctree-l3"><a class="reference internal" href="io#i-o-base-classes">I/O Base Classes</a></li> <li class="toctree-l3"><a class="reference internal" href="io#raw-file-i-o">Raw File I/O</a></li> <li class="toctree-l3"><a class="reference internal" href="io#buffered-streams">Buffered Streams</a></li> <li class="toctree-l3"><a class="reference internal" href="io#id1">Text I/O</a></li> </ul> </li> <li class="toctree-l2">
+<a class="reference internal" href="io#performance">Performance</a><ul> <li class="toctree-l3"><a class="reference internal" href="io#id2">Binary I/O</a></li> <li class="toctree-l3"><a class="reference internal" href="io#id3">Text I/O</a></li> <li class="toctree-l3"><a class="reference internal" href="io#multi-threading">Multi-threading</a></li> <li class="toctree-l3"><a class="reference internal" href="io#reentrancy">Reentrancy</a></li> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li class="toctree-l1">
+<a class="reference internal" href="time"><code>time</code> — Time access and conversions</a><ul> <li class="toctree-l2"><a class="reference internal" href="time#functions">Functions</a></li> <li class="toctree-l2"><a class="reference internal" href="time#clock-id-constants">Clock ID Constants</a></li> <li class="toctree-l2"><a class="reference internal" href="time#timezone-constants">Timezone Constants</a></li> </ul> </li> <li class="toctree-l1">
+<a class="reference internal" href="argparse"><code>argparse</code> — Parser for command-line options, arguments and sub-commands</a><ul> <li class="toctree-l2"><a class="reference internal" href="argparse#core-functionality">Core Functionality</a></li> <li class="toctree-l2"><a class="reference internal" href="argparse#quick-links-for-add-argument">Quick Links for add_argument()</a></li> <li class="toctree-l2">
+<a class="reference internal" href="argparse#example">Example</a><ul> <li class="toctree-l3"><a class="reference internal" href="argparse#creating-a-parser">Creating a parser</a></li> <li class="toctree-l3"><a class="reference internal" href="argparse#adding-arguments">Adding arguments</a></li> <li class="toctree-l3"><a class="reference internal" href="argparse#parsing-arguments">Parsing arguments</a></li> </ul> </li> <li class="toctree-l2">
+<a class="reference internal" href="argparse#argumentparser-objects">ArgumentParser objects</a><ul> <li class="toctree-l3"><a class="reference internal" href="argparse#prog">prog</a></li> <li class="toctree-l3"><a class="reference internal" href="argparse#usage">usage</a></li> <li class="toctree-l3"><a class="reference internal" href="argparse#description">description</a></li> <li class="toctree-l3"><a class="reference internal" href="argparse#epilog">epilog</a></li> <li class="toctree-l3"><a class="reference internal" href="argparse#parents">parents</a></li> <li class="toctree-l3"><a class="reference internal" href="argparse#formatter-class">formatter_class</a></li> <li class="toctree-l3"><a class="reference internal" href="argparse#prefix-chars">prefix_chars</a></li> <li class="toctree-l3"><a class="reference internal" href="argparse#fromfile-prefix-chars">fromfile_prefix_chars</a></li> <li class="toctree-l3"><a class="reference internal" href="argparse#argument-default">argument_default</a></li> <li class="toctree-l3"><a class="reference internal" href="argparse#allow-abbrev">allow_abbrev</a></li> <li class="toctree-l3"><a class="reference internal" href="argparse#conflict-handler">conflict_handler</a></li> <li class="toctree-l3"><a class="reference internal" href="argparse#add-help">add_help</a></li> <li class="toctree-l3"><a class="reference internal" href="argparse#exit-on-error">exit_on_error</a></li> </ul> </li> <li class="toctree-l2">
+<a class="reference internal" href="argparse#the-add-argument-method">The add_argument() method</a><ul> <li class="toctree-l3"><a class="reference internal" href="argparse#name-or-flags">name or flags</a></li> <li class="toctree-l3"><a class="reference internal" href="argparse#action">action</a></li> <li class="toctree-l3"><a class="reference internal" href="argparse#nargs">nargs</a></li> <li class="toctree-l3"><a class="reference internal" href="argparse#const">const</a></li> <li class="toctree-l3"><a class="reference internal" href="argparse#default">default</a></li> <li class="toctree-l3"><a class="reference internal" href="argparse#type">type</a></li> <li class="toctree-l3"><a class="reference internal" href="argparse#choices">choices</a></li> <li class="toctree-l3"><a class="reference internal" href="argparse#required">required</a></li> <li class="toctree-l3"><a class="reference internal" href="argparse#help">help</a></li> <li class="toctree-l3"><a class="reference internal" href="argparse#metavar">metavar</a></li> <li class="toctree-l3"><a class="reference internal" href="argparse#dest">dest</a></li> <li class="toctree-l3"><a class="reference internal" href="argparse#action-classes">Action classes</a></li> </ul> </li> <li class="toctree-l2">
+<a class="reference internal" href="argparse#the-parse-args-method">The parse_args() method</a><ul> <li class="toctree-l3"><a class="reference internal" href="argparse#option-value-syntax">Option value syntax</a></li> <li class="toctree-l3"><a class="reference internal" href="argparse#invalid-arguments">Invalid arguments</a></li> <li class="toctree-l3"><a class="reference internal" href="argparse#arguments-containing">Arguments containing <code>-</code></a></li> <li class="toctree-l3"><a class="reference internal" href="argparse#argument-abbreviations-prefix-matching">Argument abbreviations (prefix matching)</a></li> <li class="toctree-l3"><a class="reference internal" href="argparse#beyond-sys-argv">Beyond <code>sys.argv</code></a></li> <li class="toctree-l3"><a class="reference internal" href="argparse#the-namespace-object">The Namespace object</a></li> </ul> </li> <li class="toctree-l2">
+<a class="reference internal" href="argparse#other-utilities">Other utilities</a><ul> <li class="toctree-l3"><a class="reference internal" href="argparse#sub-commands">Sub-commands</a></li> <li class="toctree-l3"><a class="reference internal" href="argparse#filetype-objects">FileType objects</a></li> <li class="toctree-l3"><a class="reference internal" href="argparse#argument-groups">Argument groups</a></li> <li class="toctree-l3"><a class="reference internal" href="argparse#mutual-exclusion">Mutual exclusion</a></li> <li class="toctree-l3"><a class="reference internal" href="argparse#parser-defaults">Parser defaults</a></li> <li class="toctree-l3"><a class="reference internal" href="argparse#printing-help">Printing help</a></li> <li class="toctree-l3"><a class="reference internal" href="argparse#partial-parsing">Partial parsing</a></li> <li class="toctree-l3"><a class="reference internal" href="argparse#customizing-file-parsing">Customizing file parsing</a></li> <li class="toctree-l3"><a class="reference internal" href="argparse#exiting-methods">Exiting methods</a></li> <li class="toctree-l3"><a class="reference internal" href="argparse#intermixed-parsing">Intermixed parsing</a></li> </ul> </li> <li class="toctree-l2"><a class="reference internal" href="argparse#upgrading-optparse-code">Upgrading optparse code</a></li> <li class="toctree-l2"><a class="reference internal" href="argparse#exceptions">Exceptions</a></li> </ul> </li> <li class="toctree-l1"><a class="reference internal" href="getopt"><code>getopt</code> — C-style parser for command line options</a></li> <li class="toctree-l1">
+<a class="reference internal" href="logging"><code>logging</code> — Logging facility for Python</a><ul> <li class="toctree-l2"><a class="reference internal" href="logging#logger-objects">Logger Objects</a></li> <li class="toctree-l2"><a class="reference internal" href="logging#logging-levels">Logging Levels</a></li> <li class="toctree-l2"><a class="reference internal" href="logging#handler-objects">Handler Objects</a></li> <li class="toctree-l2"><a class="reference internal" href="logging#formatter-objects">Formatter Objects</a></li> <li class="toctree-l2"><a class="reference internal" href="logging#filter-objects">Filter Objects</a></li> <li class="toctree-l2"><a class="reference internal" href="logging#logrecord-objects">LogRecord Objects</a></li> <li class="toctree-l2"><a class="reference internal" href="logging#logrecord-attributes">LogRecord attributes</a></li> <li class="toctree-l2"><a class="reference internal" href="logging#loggeradapter-objects">LoggerAdapter Objects</a></li> <li class="toctree-l2"><a class="reference internal" href="logging#thread-safety">Thread Safety</a></li> <li class="toctree-l2"><a class="reference internal" href="logging#module-level-functions">Module-Level Functions</a></li> <li class="toctree-l2"><a class="reference internal" href="logging#module-level-attributes">Module-Level Attributes</a></li> <li class="toctree-l2"><a class="reference internal" href="logging#integration-with-the-warnings-module">Integration with the warnings module</a></li> </ul> </li> <li class="toctree-l1">
+<a class="reference internal" href="logging.config"><code>logging.config</code> — Logging configuration</a><ul> <li class="toctree-l2"><a class="reference internal" href="logging.config#configuration-functions">Configuration functions</a></li> <li class="toctree-l2"><a class="reference internal" href="logging.config#security-considerations">Security considerations</a></li> <li class="toctree-l2">
+<a class="reference internal" href="logging.config#configuration-dictionary-schema">Configuration dictionary schema</a><ul> <li class="toctree-l3"><a class="reference internal" href="logging.config#dictionary-schema-details">Dictionary Schema Details</a></li> <li class="toctree-l3"><a class="reference internal" href="logging.config#incremental-configuration">Incremental Configuration</a></li> <li class="toctree-l3"><a class="reference internal" href="logging.config#object-connections">Object connections</a></li> <li class="toctree-l3"><a class="reference internal" href="logging.config#user-defined-objects">User-defined objects</a></li> <li class="toctree-l3"><a class="reference internal" href="logging.config#handler-configuration-order">Handler configuration order</a></li> <li class="toctree-l3"><a class="reference internal" href="logging.config#access-to-external-objects">Access to external objects</a></li> <li class="toctree-l3"><a class="reference internal" href="logging.config#access-to-internal-objects">Access to internal objects</a></li> <li class="toctree-l3"><a class="reference internal" href="logging.config#import-resolution-and-custom-importers">Import resolution and custom importers</a></li> <li class="toctree-l3"><a class="reference internal" href="logging.config#configuring-queuehandler-and-queuelistener">Configuring QueueHandler and QueueListener</a></li> </ul> </li> <li class="toctree-l2"><a class="reference internal" href="logging.config#configuration-file-format">Configuration file format</a></li> </ul> </li> <li class="toctree-l1">
+<a class="reference internal" href="logging.handlers"><code>logging.handlers</code> — Logging handlers</a><ul> <li class="toctree-l2"><a class="reference internal" href="logging.handlers#streamhandler">StreamHandler</a></li> <li class="toctree-l2"><a class="reference internal" href="logging.handlers#filehandler">FileHandler</a></li> <li class="toctree-l2"><a class="reference internal" href="logging.handlers#nullhandler">NullHandler</a></li> <li class="toctree-l2"><a class="reference internal" href="logging.handlers#watchedfilehandler">WatchedFileHandler</a></li> <li class="toctree-l2"><a class="reference internal" href="logging.handlers#baserotatinghandler">BaseRotatingHandler</a></li> <li class="toctree-l2"><a class="reference internal" href="logging.handlers#rotatingfilehandler">RotatingFileHandler</a></li> <li class="toctree-l2"><a class="reference internal" href="logging.handlers#timedrotatingfilehandler">TimedRotatingFileHandler</a></li> <li class="toctree-l2"><a class="reference internal" href="logging.handlers#sockethandler">SocketHandler</a></li> <li class="toctree-l2"><a class="reference internal" href="logging.handlers#datagramhandler">DatagramHandler</a></li> <li class="toctree-l2"><a class="reference internal" href="logging.handlers#sysloghandler">SysLogHandler</a></li> <li class="toctree-l2"><a class="reference internal" href="logging.handlers#nteventloghandler">NTEventLogHandler</a></li> <li class="toctree-l2"><a class="reference internal" href="logging.handlers#smtphandler">SMTPHandler</a></li> <li class="toctree-l2"><a class="reference internal" href="logging.handlers#memoryhandler">MemoryHandler</a></li> <li class="toctree-l2"><a class="reference internal" href="logging.handlers#httphandler">HTTPHandler</a></li> <li class="toctree-l2"><a class="reference internal" href="logging.handlers#queuehandler">QueueHandler</a></li> <li class="toctree-l2"><a class="reference internal" href="logging.handlers#queuelistener">QueueListener</a></li> </ul> </li> <li class="toctree-l1"><a class="reference internal" href="getpass"><code>getpass</code> — Portable password input</a></li> <li class="toctree-l1">
+<a class="reference internal" href="curses"><code>curses</code> — Terminal handling for character-cell displays</a><ul> <li class="toctree-l2"><a class="reference internal" href="curses#functions">Functions</a></li> <li class="toctree-l2"><a class="reference internal" href="curses#window-objects">Window Objects</a></li> <li class="toctree-l2"><a class="reference internal" href="curses#constants">Constants</a></li> </ul> </li> <li class="toctree-l1">
+<a class="reference internal" href="curses#module-curses.textpad"><code>curses.textpad</code> — Text input widget for curses programs</a><ul> <li class="toctree-l2"><a class="reference internal" href="curses#textbox-objects">Textbox objects</a></li> </ul> </li> <li class="toctree-l1"><a class="reference internal" href="curses.ascii"><code>curses.ascii</code> — Utilities for ASCII characters</a></li> <li class="toctree-l1">
+<a class="reference internal" href="curses.panel"><code>curses.panel</code> — A panel stack extension for curses</a><ul> <li class="toctree-l2"><a class="reference internal" href="curses.panel#functions">Functions</a></li> <li class="toctree-l2"><a class="reference internal" href="curses.panel#panel-objects">Panel Objects</a></li> </ul> </li> <li class="toctree-l1">
+<a class="reference internal" href="platform"><code>platform</code> — Access to underlying platform’s identifying data</a><ul> <li class="toctree-l2"><a class="reference internal" href="platform#cross-platform">Cross Platform</a></li> <li class="toctree-l2"><a class="reference internal" href="platform#java-platform">Java Platform</a></li> <li class="toctree-l2"><a class="reference internal" href="platform#windows-platform">Windows Platform</a></li> <li class="toctree-l2"><a class="reference internal" href="platform#macos-platform">macOS Platform</a></li> <li class="toctree-l2"><a class="reference internal" href="platform#unix-platforms">Unix Platforms</a></li> <li class="toctree-l2"><a class="reference internal" href="platform#linux-platforms">Linux Platforms</a></li> </ul> </li> <li class="toctree-l1"><a class="reference internal" href="errno"><code>errno</code> — Standard errno system symbols</a></li> <li class="toctree-l1">
+<a class="reference internal" href="ctypes"><code>ctypes</code> — A foreign function library for Python</a><ul> <li class="toctree-l2">
+<a class="reference internal" href="ctypes#ctypes-tutorial">ctypes tutorial</a><ul> <li class="toctree-l3"><a class="reference internal" href="ctypes#loading-dynamic-link-libraries">Loading dynamic link libraries</a></li> <li class="toctree-l3"><a class="reference internal" href="ctypes#accessing-functions-from-loaded-dlls">Accessing functions from loaded dlls</a></li> <li class="toctree-l3"><a class="reference internal" href="ctypes#calling-functions">Calling functions</a></li> <li class="toctree-l3"><a class="reference internal" href="ctypes#fundamental-data-types">Fundamental data types</a></li> <li class="toctree-l3"><a class="reference internal" href="ctypes#calling-functions-continued">Calling functions, continued</a></li> <li class="toctree-l3"><a class="reference internal" href="ctypes#calling-variadic-functions">Calling variadic functions</a></li> <li class="toctree-l3"><a class="reference internal" href="ctypes#calling-functions-with-your-own-custom-data-types">Calling functions with your own custom data types</a></li> <li class="toctree-l3"><a class="reference internal" href="ctypes#specifying-the-required-argument-types-function-prototypes">Specifying the required argument types (function prototypes)</a></li> <li class="toctree-l3"><a class="reference internal" href="ctypes#return-types">Return types</a></li> <li class="toctree-l3"><a class="reference internal" href="ctypes#passing-pointers-or-passing-parameters-by-reference">Passing pointers (or: passing parameters by reference)</a></li> <li class="toctree-l3"><a class="reference internal" href="ctypes#structures-and-unions">Structures and unions</a></li> <li class="toctree-l3"><a class="reference internal" href="ctypes#structure-union-alignment-and-byte-order">Structure/union alignment and byte order</a></li> <li class="toctree-l3"><a class="reference internal" href="ctypes#bit-fields-in-structures-and-unions">Bit fields in structures and unions</a></li> <li class="toctree-l3"><a class="reference internal" href="ctypes#arrays">Arrays</a></li> <li class="toctree-l3"><a class="reference internal" href="ctypes#pointers">Pointers</a></li> <li class="toctree-l3"><a class="reference internal" href="ctypes#type-conversions">Type conversions</a></li> <li class="toctree-l3"><a class="reference internal" href="ctypes#incomplete-types">Incomplete Types</a></li> <li class="toctree-l3"><a class="reference internal" href="ctypes#callback-functions">Callback functions</a></li> <li class="toctree-l3"><a class="reference internal" href="ctypes#accessing-values-exported-from-dlls">Accessing values exported from dlls</a></li> <li class="toctree-l3"><a class="reference internal" href="ctypes#surprises">Surprises</a></li> <li class="toctree-l3"><a class="reference internal" href="ctypes#variable-sized-data-types">Variable-sized data types</a></li> </ul> </li> <li class="toctree-l2">
+<a class="reference internal" href="ctypes#ctypes-reference">ctypes reference</a><ul> <li class="toctree-l3"><a class="reference internal" href="ctypes#finding-shared-libraries">Finding shared libraries</a></li> <li class="toctree-l3"><a class="reference internal" href="ctypes#loading-shared-libraries">Loading shared libraries</a></li> <li class="toctree-l3"><a class="reference internal" href="ctypes#foreign-functions">Foreign functions</a></li> <li class="toctree-l3"><a class="reference internal" href="ctypes#function-prototypes">Function prototypes</a></li> <li class="toctree-l3"><a class="reference internal" href="ctypes#utility-functions">Utility functions</a></li> <li class="toctree-l3"><a class="reference internal" href="ctypes#data-types">Data types</a></li> <li class="toctree-l3"><a class="reference internal" href="ctypes#ctypes-fundamental-data-types-2">Fundamental data types</a></li> <li class="toctree-l3"><a class="reference internal" href="ctypes#structured-data-types">Structured data types</a></li> <li class="toctree-l3"><a class="reference internal" href="ctypes#arrays-and-pointers">Arrays and pointers</a></li> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> </ul>  <div class="_attribution">
+  <p class="_attribution-p">
+    &copy; 2001&ndash;2023 Python Software Foundation<br>Licensed under the PSF License.<br>
+    <a href="https://docs.python.org/3.12/library/allos.html" class="_attribution-link">https://docs.python.org/3.12/library/allos.html</a>
+  </p>
+</div>