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+ <span id="development"></span><h1>Development Tools</h1> <p>The modules described in this chapter help you write software. For example, the <a class="reference internal" href="pydoc#module-pydoc" title="pydoc: Documentation generator and online help system."><code>pydoc</code></a> module takes a module and generates documentation based on the module’s contents. The <a class="reference internal" href="doctest#module-doctest" title="doctest: Test pieces of code within docstrings."><code>doctest</code></a> and <a class="reference internal" href="unittest#module-unittest" title="unittest: Unit testing framework for Python."><code>unittest</code></a> modules contains frameworks for writing unit tests that automatically exercise code and verify that the expected output is produced. <strong class="program">2to3</strong> can translate Python 2.x source code into valid Python 3.x code.</p> <p>The list of modules described in this chapter is:</p>  <ul> <li class="toctree-l1">
+<a class="reference internal" href="typing"><code>typing</code> — Support for type hints</a><ul> <li class="toctree-l2"><a class="reference internal" href="typing#relevant-peps">Relevant PEPs</a></li> <li class="toctree-l2"><a class="reference internal" href="typing#type-aliases">Type aliases</a></li> <li class="toctree-l2"><a class="reference internal" href="typing#newtype">NewType</a></li> <li class="toctree-l2"><a class="reference internal" href="typing#annotating-callable-objects">Annotating callable objects</a></li> <li class="toctree-l2"><a class="reference internal" href="typing#generics">Generics</a></li> <li class="toctree-l2"><a class="reference internal" href="typing#annotating-tuples">Annotating tuples</a></li> <li class="toctree-l2"><a class="reference internal" href="typing#the-type-of-class-objects">The type of class objects</a></li> <li class="toctree-l2"><a class="reference internal" href="typing#user-defined-generic-types">User-defined generic types</a></li> <li class="toctree-l2"><a class="reference internal" href="typing#the-any-type">The <code>Any</code> type</a></li> <li class="toctree-l2"><a class="reference internal" href="typing#nominal-vs-structural-subtyping">Nominal vs structural subtyping</a></li> <li class="toctree-l2">
+<a class="reference internal" href="typing#module-contents">Module contents</a><ul> <li class="toctree-l3">
+<a class="reference internal" href="typing#special-typing-primitives">Special typing primitives</a><ul> <li class="toctree-l4"><a class="reference internal" href="typing#special-types">Special types</a></li> <li class="toctree-l4"><a class="reference internal" href="typing#special-forms">Special forms</a></li> <li class="toctree-l4"><a class="reference internal" href="typing#building-generic-types-and-type-aliases">Building generic types and type aliases</a></li> <li class="toctree-l4"><a class="reference internal" href="typing#other-special-directives">Other special directives</a></li> </ul> </li> <li class="toctree-l3"><a class="reference internal" href="typing#protocols">Protocols</a></li> <li class="toctree-l3"><a class="reference internal" href="typing#abcs-for-working-with-io">ABCs for working with IO</a></li> <li class="toctree-l3"><a class="reference internal" href="typing#functions-and-decorators">Functions and decorators</a></li> <li class="toctree-l3"><a class="reference internal" href="typing#introspection-helpers">Introspection helpers</a></li> <li class="toctree-l3"><a class="reference internal" href="typing#constant">Constant</a></li> <li class="toctree-l3">
+<a class="reference internal" href="typing#deprecated-aliases">Deprecated aliases</a><ul> <li class="toctree-l4"><a class="reference internal" href="typing#aliases-to-built-in-types">Aliases to built-in types</a></li> <li class="toctree-l4"><a class="reference internal" href="typing#aliases-to-types-in-collections">Aliases to types in <code>collections</code></a></li> <li class="toctree-l4"><a class="reference internal" href="typing#aliases-to-other-concrete-types">Aliases to other concrete types</a></li> <li class="toctree-l4"><a class="reference internal" href="typing#aliases-to-container-abcs-in-collections-abc">Aliases to container ABCs in <code>collections.abc</code></a></li> <li class="toctree-l4"><a class="reference internal" href="typing#aliases-to-asynchronous-abcs-in-collections-abc">Aliases to asynchronous ABCs in <code>collections.abc</code></a></li> <li class="toctree-l4"><a class="reference internal" href="typing#aliases-to-other-abcs-in-collections-abc">Aliases to other ABCs in <code>collections.abc</code></a></li> <li class="toctree-l4"><a class="reference internal" href="typing#aliases-to-contextlib-abcs">Aliases to <code>contextlib</code> ABCs</a></li> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li class="toctree-l2"><a class="reference internal" href="typing#deprecation-timeline-of-major-features">Deprecation Timeline of Major Features</a></li> </ul> </li> <li class="toctree-l1"><a class="reference internal" href="pydoc"><code>pydoc</code> — Documentation generator and online help system</a></li> <li class="toctree-l1">
+<a class="reference internal" href="devmode">Python Development Mode</a><ul> <li class="toctree-l2"><a class="reference internal" href="devmode#effects-of-the-python-development-mode">Effects of the Python Development Mode</a></li> <li class="toctree-l2"><a class="reference internal" href="devmode#resourcewarning-example">ResourceWarning Example</a></li> <li class="toctree-l2"><a class="reference internal" href="devmode#bad-file-descriptor-error-example">Bad file descriptor error example</a></li> </ul> </li> <li class="toctree-l1">
+<a class="reference internal" href="doctest"><code>doctest</code> — Test interactive Python examples</a><ul> <li class="toctree-l2"><a class="reference internal" href="doctest#simple-usage-checking-examples-in-docstrings">Simple Usage: Checking Examples in Docstrings</a></li> <li class="toctree-l2"><a class="reference internal" href="doctest#simple-usage-checking-examples-in-a-text-file">Simple Usage: Checking Examples in a Text File</a></li> <li class="toctree-l2">
+<a class="reference internal" href="doctest#how-it-works">How It Works</a><ul> <li class="toctree-l3"><a class="reference internal" href="doctest#which-docstrings-are-examined">Which Docstrings Are Examined?</a></li> <li class="toctree-l3"><a class="reference internal" href="doctest#how-are-docstring-examples-recognized">How are Docstring Examples Recognized?</a></li> <li class="toctree-l3"><a class="reference internal" href="doctest#what-s-the-execution-context">What’s the Execution Context?</a></li> <li class="toctree-l3"><a class="reference internal" href="doctest#what-about-exceptions">What About Exceptions?</a></li> <li class="toctree-l3"><a class="reference internal" href="doctest#option-flags">Option Flags</a></li> <li class="toctree-l3"><a class="reference internal" href="doctest#directives">Directives</a></li> <li class="toctree-l3"><a class="reference internal" href="doctest#warnings">Warnings</a></li> </ul> </li> <li class="toctree-l2"><a class="reference internal" href="doctest#basic-api">Basic API</a></li> <li class="toctree-l2"><a class="reference internal" href="doctest#unittest-api">Unittest API</a></li> <li class="toctree-l2">
+<a class="reference internal" href="doctest#advanced-api">Advanced API</a><ul> <li class="toctree-l3"><a class="reference internal" href="doctest#doctest-objects">DocTest Objects</a></li> <li class="toctree-l3"><a class="reference internal" href="doctest#example-objects">Example Objects</a></li> <li class="toctree-l3"><a class="reference internal" href="doctest#doctestfinder-objects">DocTestFinder objects</a></li> <li class="toctree-l3"><a class="reference internal" href="doctest#doctestparser-objects">DocTestParser objects</a></li> <li class="toctree-l3"><a class="reference internal" href="doctest#doctestrunner-objects">DocTestRunner objects</a></li> <li class="toctree-l3"><a class="reference internal" href="doctest#outputchecker-objects">OutputChecker objects</a></li> </ul> </li> <li class="toctree-l2"><a class="reference internal" href="doctest#debugging">Debugging</a></li> <li class="toctree-l2"><a class="reference internal" href="doctest#soapbox">Soapbox</a></li> </ul> </li> <li class="toctree-l1">
+<a class="reference internal" href="unittest"><code>unittest</code> — Unit testing framework</a><ul> <li class="toctree-l2"><a class="reference internal" href="unittest#basic-example">Basic example</a></li> <li class="toctree-l2">
+<a class="reference internal" href="unittest#command-line-interface">Command-Line Interface</a><ul> <li class="toctree-l3"><a class="reference internal" href="unittest#command-line-options">Command-line options</a></li> </ul> </li> <li class="toctree-l2"><a class="reference internal" href="unittest#test-discovery">Test Discovery</a></li> <li class="toctree-l2"><a class="reference internal" href="unittest#organizing-test-code">Organizing test code</a></li> <li class="toctree-l2"><a class="reference internal" href="unittest#re-using-old-test-code">Re-using old test code</a></li> <li class="toctree-l2"><a class="reference internal" href="unittest#skipping-tests-and-expected-failures">Skipping tests and expected failures</a></li> <li class="toctree-l2"><a class="reference internal" href="unittest#distinguishing-test-iterations-using-subtests">Distinguishing test iterations using subtests</a></li> <li class="toctree-l2">
+<a class="reference internal" href="unittest#classes-and-functions">Classes and functions</a><ul> <li class="toctree-l3"><a class="reference internal" href="unittest#test-cases">Test cases</a></li> <li class="toctree-l3"><a class="reference internal" href="unittest#grouping-tests">Grouping tests</a></li> <li class="toctree-l3">
+<a class="reference internal" href="unittest#loading-and-running-tests">Loading and running tests</a><ul> <li class="toctree-l4"><a class="reference internal" href="unittest#load-tests-protocol">load_tests Protocol</a></li> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li class="toctree-l2">
+<a class="reference internal" href="unittest#class-and-module-fixtures">Class and Module Fixtures</a><ul> <li class="toctree-l3"><a class="reference internal" href="unittest#setupclass-and-teardownclass">setUpClass and tearDownClass</a></li> <li class="toctree-l3"><a class="reference internal" href="unittest#setupmodule-and-teardownmodule">setUpModule and tearDownModule</a></li> </ul> </li> <li class="toctree-l2"><a class="reference internal" href="unittest#signal-handling">Signal Handling</a></li> </ul> </li> <li class="toctree-l1">
+<a class="reference internal" href="unittest.mock"><code>unittest.mock</code> — mock object library</a><ul> <li class="toctree-l2"><a class="reference internal" href="unittest.mock#quick-guide">Quick Guide</a></li> <li class="toctree-l2">
+<a class="reference internal" href="unittest.mock#the-mock-class">The Mock Class</a><ul> <li class="toctree-l3"><a class="reference internal" href="unittest.mock#calling">Calling</a></li> <li class="toctree-l3"><a class="reference internal" href="unittest.mock#deleting-attributes">Deleting Attributes</a></li> <li class="toctree-l3"><a class="reference internal" href="unittest.mock#mock-names-and-the-name-attribute">Mock names and the name attribute</a></li> <li class="toctree-l3"><a class="reference internal" href="unittest.mock#attaching-mocks-as-attributes">Attaching Mocks as Attributes</a></li> </ul> </li> <li class="toctree-l2">
+<a class="reference internal" href="unittest.mock#the-patchers">The patchers</a><ul> <li class="toctree-l3"><a class="reference internal" href="unittest.mock#patch">patch</a></li> <li class="toctree-l3"><a class="reference internal" href="unittest.mock#patch-object">patch.object</a></li> <li class="toctree-l3"><a class="reference internal" href="unittest.mock#patch-dict">patch.dict</a></li> <li class="toctree-l3"><a class="reference internal" href="unittest.mock#patch-multiple">patch.multiple</a></li> <li class="toctree-l3"><a class="reference internal" href="unittest.mock#patch-methods-start-and-stop">patch methods: start and stop</a></li> <li class="toctree-l3"><a class="reference internal" href="unittest.mock#patch-builtins">patch builtins</a></li> <li class="toctree-l3"><a class="reference internal" href="unittest.mock#test-prefix">TEST_PREFIX</a></li> <li class="toctree-l3"><a class="reference internal" href="unittest.mock#nesting-patch-decorators">Nesting Patch Decorators</a></li> <li class="toctree-l3"><a class="reference internal" href="unittest.mock#where-to-patch">Where to patch</a></li> <li class="toctree-l3"><a class="reference internal" href="unittest.mock#patching-descriptors-and-proxy-objects">Patching Descriptors and Proxy Objects</a></li> </ul> </li> <li class="toctree-l2">
+<a class="reference internal" href="unittest.mock#magicmock-and-magic-method-support">MagicMock and magic method support</a><ul> <li class="toctree-l3"><a class="reference internal" href="unittest.mock#mocking-magic-methods">Mocking Magic Methods</a></li> <li class="toctree-l3"><a class="reference internal" href="unittest.mock#magic-mock">Magic Mock</a></li> </ul> </li> <li class="toctree-l2">
+<a class="reference internal" href="unittest.mock#helpers">Helpers</a><ul> <li class="toctree-l3"><a class="reference internal" href="unittest.mock#sentinel">sentinel</a></li> <li class="toctree-l3"><a class="reference internal" href="unittest.mock#default">DEFAULT</a></li> <li class="toctree-l3"><a class="reference internal" href="unittest.mock#call">call</a></li> <li class="toctree-l3"><a class="reference internal" href="unittest.mock#create-autospec">create_autospec</a></li> <li class="toctree-l3"><a class="reference internal" href="unittest.mock#any">ANY</a></li> <li class="toctree-l3"><a class="reference internal" href="unittest.mock#filter-dir">FILTER_DIR</a></li> <li class="toctree-l3"><a class="reference internal" href="unittest.mock#mock-open">mock_open</a></li> <li class="toctree-l3"><a class="reference internal" href="unittest.mock#autospeccing">Autospeccing</a></li> <li class="toctree-l3"><a class="reference internal" href="unittest.mock#sealing-mocks">Sealing mocks</a></li> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li class="toctree-l1">
+<a class="reference internal" href="https://docs.python.org/3.12/library/unittest.mock-examples.html"><code>unittest.mock</code> — getting started</a><ul> <li class="toctree-l2">
+<a class="reference internal" href="https://docs.python.org/3.12/library/unittest.mock-examples.html#using-mock">Using Mock</a><ul> <li class="toctree-l3"><a class="reference internal" href="https://docs.python.org/3.12/library/unittest.mock-examples.html#mock-patching-methods">Mock Patching Methods</a></li> <li class="toctree-l3"><a class="reference internal" href="https://docs.python.org/3.12/library/unittest.mock-examples.html#mock-for-method-calls-on-an-object">Mock for Method Calls on an Object</a></li> <li class="toctree-l3"><a class="reference internal" href="https://docs.python.org/3.12/library/unittest.mock-examples.html#mocking-classes">Mocking Classes</a></li> <li class="toctree-l3"><a class="reference internal" href="https://docs.python.org/3.12/library/unittest.mock-examples.html#naming-your-mocks">Naming your mocks</a></li> <li class="toctree-l3"><a class="reference internal" href="https://docs.python.org/3.12/library/unittest.mock-examples.html#tracking-all-calls">Tracking all Calls</a></li> <li class="toctree-l3"><a class="reference internal" href="https://docs.python.org/3.12/library/unittest.mock-examples.html#setting-return-values-and-attributes">Setting Return Values and Attributes</a></li> <li class="toctree-l3"><a class="reference internal" href="https://docs.python.org/3.12/library/unittest.mock-examples.html#raising-exceptions-with-mocks">Raising exceptions with mocks</a></li> <li class="toctree-l3"><a class="reference internal" href="https://docs.python.org/3.12/library/unittest.mock-examples.html#side-effect-functions-and-iterables">Side effect functions and iterables</a></li> <li class="toctree-l3"><a class="reference internal" href="https://docs.python.org/3.12/library/unittest.mock-examples.html#mocking-asynchronous-iterators">Mocking asynchronous iterators</a></li> <li class="toctree-l3"><a class="reference internal" href="https://docs.python.org/3.12/library/unittest.mock-examples.html#mocking-asynchronous-context-manager">Mocking asynchronous context manager</a></li> <li class="toctree-l3"><a class="reference internal" href="https://docs.python.org/3.12/library/unittest.mock-examples.html#creating-a-mock-from-an-existing-object">Creating a Mock from an Existing Object</a></li> <li class="toctree-l3"><a class="reference internal" href="https://docs.python.org/3.12/library/unittest.mock-examples.html#using-side-effect-to-return-per-file-content">Using side_effect to return per file content</a></li> </ul> </li> <li class="toctree-l2"><a class="reference internal" href="https://docs.python.org/3.12/library/unittest.mock-examples.html#patch-decorators">Patch Decorators</a></li> <li class="toctree-l2">
+<a class="reference internal" href="https://docs.python.org/3.12/library/unittest.mock-examples.html#further-examples">Further Examples</a><ul> <li class="toctree-l3"><a class="reference internal" href="https://docs.python.org/3.12/library/unittest.mock-examples.html#mocking-chained-calls">Mocking chained calls</a></li> <li class="toctree-l3"><a class="reference internal" href="https://docs.python.org/3.12/library/unittest.mock-examples.html#partial-mocking">Partial mocking</a></li> <li class="toctree-l3"><a class="reference internal" href="https://docs.python.org/3.12/library/unittest.mock-examples.html#mocking-a-generator-method">Mocking a Generator Method</a></li> <li class="toctree-l3"><a class="reference internal" href="https://docs.python.org/3.12/library/unittest.mock-examples.html#applying-the-same-patch-to-every-test-method">Applying the same patch to every test method</a></li> <li class="toctree-l3"><a class="reference internal" href="https://docs.python.org/3.12/library/unittest.mock-examples.html#mocking-unbound-methods">Mocking Unbound Methods</a></li> <li class="toctree-l3"><a class="reference internal" href="https://docs.python.org/3.12/library/unittest.mock-examples.html#checking-multiple-calls-with-mock">Checking multiple calls with mock</a></li> <li class="toctree-l3"><a class="reference internal" href="https://docs.python.org/3.12/library/unittest.mock-examples.html#coping-with-mutable-arguments">Coping with mutable arguments</a></li> <li class="toctree-l3"><a class="reference internal" href="https://docs.python.org/3.12/library/unittest.mock-examples.html#nesting-patches">Nesting Patches</a></li> <li class="toctree-l3"><a class="reference internal" href="https://docs.python.org/3.12/library/unittest.mock-examples.html#mocking-a-dictionary-with-magicmock">Mocking a dictionary with MagicMock</a></li> <li class="toctree-l3"><a class="reference internal" href="https://docs.python.org/3.12/library/unittest.mock-examples.html#mock-subclasses-and-their-attributes">Mock subclasses and their attributes</a></li> <li class="toctree-l3"><a class="reference internal" href="https://docs.python.org/3.12/library/unittest.mock-examples.html#mocking-imports-with-patch-dict">Mocking imports with patch.dict</a></li> <li class="toctree-l3"><a class="reference internal" href="https://docs.python.org/3.12/library/unittest.mock-examples.html#tracking-order-of-calls-and-less-verbose-call-assertions">Tracking order of calls and less verbose call assertions</a></li> <li class="toctree-l3"><a class="reference internal" href="https://docs.python.org/3.12/library/unittest.mock-examples.html#more-complex-argument-matching">More complex argument matching</a></li> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li class="toctree-l1">
+<a class="reference internal" href="https://docs.python.org/3.12/library/2to3.html">2to3 — Automated Python 2 to 3 code translation</a><ul> <li class="toctree-l2"><a class="reference internal" href="https://docs.python.org/3.12/library/2to3.html#using-2to3">Using 2to3</a></li> <li class="toctree-l2"><a class="reference internal" href="https://docs.python.org/3.12/library/2to3.html#fixers">Fixers</a></li> <li class="toctree-l2"><a class="reference internal" href="https://docs.python.org/3.12/library/2to3.html#module-lib2to3"><code>lib2to3</code> — 2to3’s library</a></li> </ul> </li> <li class="toctree-l1">
+<a class="reference internal" href="test"><code>test</code> — Regression tests package for Python</a><ul> <li class="toctree-l2"><a class="reference internal" href="test#writing-unit-tests-for-the-test-package">Writing Unit Tests for the <code>test</code> package</a></li> <li class="toctree-l2"><a class="reference internal" href="test#module-test.regrtest">Running tests using the command-line interface</a></li> </ul> </li> <li class="toctree-l1"><a class="reference internal" href="test#module-test.support"><code>test.support</code> — Utilities for the Python test suite</a></li> <li class="toctree-l1"><a class="reference internal" href="test#module-test.support.socket_helper"><code>test.support.socket_helper</code> — Utilities for socket tests</a></li> <li class="toctree-l1"><a class="reference internal" href="test#module-test.support.script_helper"><code>test.support.script_helper</code> — Utilities for the Python execution tests</a></li> <li class="toctree-l1"><a class="reference internal" href="test#module-test.support.bytecode_helper"><code>test.support.bytecode_helper</code> — Support tools for testing correct bytecode generation</a></li> <li class="toctree-l1"><a class="reference internal" href="test#module-test.support.threading_helper"><code>test.support.threading_helper</code> — Utilities for threading tests</a></li> <li class="toctree-l1"><a class="reference internal" href="test#module-test.support.os_helper"><code>test.support.os_helper</code> — Utilities for os tests</a></li> <li class="toctree-l1"><a class="reference internal" href="test#module-test.support.import_helper"><code>test.support.import_helper</code> — Utilities for import tests</a></li> <li class="toctree-l1"><a class="reference internal" href="test#module-test.support.warnings_helper"><code>test.support.warnings_helper</code> — Utilities for warnings tests</a></li> </ul>  <div class="_attribution">
+  <p class="_attribution-p">
+    &copy; 2001&ndash;2023 Python Software Foundation<br>Licensed under the PSF License.<br>
+    <a href="https://docs.python.org/3.12/library/development.html" class="_attribution-link">https://docs.python.org/3.12/library/development.html</a>
+  </p>
+</div>